On the Sinitic-Vietnamese Studies
by dchph
Executive Summary:
I) Case Study Worksheets
The case studies demonstrate that Vietnamese etymology is best understood as a layered system, where Sino‑Vietnamese, Sinitic‑Vietnamese, Austroasiatic, and regional borrowings interact. By aligning Vietnamese forms with their Chinese or regional cognates, the worksheets show how regular sound correspondences coexist with irregular shifts, and how cultural and idiomatic contexts shaped lexical adoption. They serve as both analytical tools and pedagogical scaffolds, illustrating that Vietnamese historical phonology requires a comparative, multi‑layered approach rather than a single explanatory model.
II) Conclusion
This research reframes Vietnamese historical linguistics by challenging entrenched assumptions and offering a new methodological foundation. Five central contributions emerge:
- Recognition of a Yue substratum predating Chinese.
- Critique of nationalist and political bias in past scholarship.
- Reclassification of many “basic” words as Sino‑Tibetan rather than Mon‑Khmer.
- Assertion of dissyllabicity in both Vietnamese and Chinese.
- Introduction of an analogical method using syllabic pairings to uncover Sinitic‑Vietnamese vocabulary.
Overall, the study positions Vietnamese as a layered language shaped by Yue roots, Sinitic borrowings, and regional admixtures. By emphasizing polysyllabicity and analogical analysis, it provides a framework for renewed research momentum and points toward the eventual compilation of a comprehensive Vietnamese dictionary that systematically incorporates Chinese etymologies.
x X x
We will be working with a series of case study worksheets, each designed as a practical tool for brainstorming and testing whether particular Vietnamese words may be candidates of Chinese origin. When the author approaches such problems, he often visualizes them graphically, mapping possible connections between Vietnamese forms and their Chinese counterparts. For beginners, who may still feel overwhelmed by abstract concepts such as disyllabicity or etymological analogy, these worksheets provide something concrete to work with after the theoretical discussions and hypotheses presented earlier.
The overall purpose of the worksheets is to give you a pen‑and‑paper method for identifying additional Vietnamese words of potential Chinese origin, beyond those already recognized as plausible cognates. By using a tabular format, you can experiment with possible sound changes, especially those involving disyllabic formations, association, and assimilation. What follows are guidelines for how to use each worksheet as a complement to the approaches discussed previously.
I) Case Study Worksheet
Worksheet 1: Getting Started
Worksheet 1 is simply one organized way to apply the disyllabic and analogical methods on paper. Ideally, you should print it out and work with hard copies. Remember, these worksheets are brainstorming tools rather than rigid frameworks – you are encouraged to add your own observations and adapt them to your ongoing etymological work. With practice, the process will become second nature, and you may find yourself working out patterns mentally without needing the worksheet.
Column 1: Candidate Words Begin by examining the provided examples, then use the blank rows to record Vietnamese words that might be of Chinese origin. Separate them into monosyllabic (đơnâmtiết) and disyllabic (songâmtiết) sub‑columns. For each monosyllabic Vietnamese word it has many homonyms, which can spark further exploration.
Column 2: Sandhi (Chuyểnâm) This column is divided into “association” (liêntưởng) and “assimilation” (đồnghoá). Here, ask yourself: Why is the word pronounced this way and not another? What variations exist? Could its form be explained by assimilation, analogy, or local innovation? This step helps you consider how a word’s vocalization may have shifted over time.
Column 3: Analogy (Sosánh) Classify the word into categorical groups (thểloại), then apply the principle of corollary (quynạp). Identify which words belong together and use analogy to generate further leads. This may reveal additional Vietnamese words that correspond to multiple Chinese equivalents, not just one.
Column 4: Local Development (Chữmới) Some words may be products of local innovation (Việthoá). In such cases, Chinese traces may have disappeared entirely. In the “sound changes” (biếnâm) sub‑column, note that systematic correspondences may not apply, since these words no longer follow the predictable phonological rules of Sino‑Vietnamese.
Column 5: Possible Sources/Forms (Nhậndạng chữgốc / từpháisinh) Keep in mind that a Vietnamese word may derive from more than one Chinese source. Do not assume a single character must map directly to a single Vietnamese form – never ever. Use the “Word‑character” (tự / tiếng) and “Word” (từ) sub‑columns to record multiple possible origins, especially when disyllabic formations are involved.
Final Note – Try to fill in as many blanks as possible, but don’t worry if some remain empty. Leave them for later review – often, new insights emerge when you revisit the worksheet after further study. The goal is not perfection but exploration: by systematically recording possibilities, you create a working map of sound changes and potential cognates that can be refined over time.
Case Study Worksheet 1
| (1) Candidates | (2) Sandhi | (3) Analogy | (4) Local development | (5) Possible sources/forms | |||||
| Mono- syllabic | Dis- syllabic | Asso- ciation | Assim- ilation | Cate- gorical | Coro- llary | Sound changes | Inno- vation | Word- character | Word |
| 肥 féi (SV phì) ‘fat’, 肉 ròu (SV nhục) ‘meat’ | barọi 肥肉 féiròu (bacon) | ba 肥 féi ~ 巴 ba, 肉 ròu ~ ‘rọi’ | 肥 féi (phonetic: ba 巴 bā for 三 sān ‘three’) | 肉 ròu (meat) ~ ‘rọi’, a deviate of ‘ruốc’ (N. Viet. for ‘pork’) | 肥 féi (fat) ~ ba, 肉 ròu (meat) ~ ‘rọi’ | f- ~ b-, r- ~ r- | 肉 ròu ~ ‘rọi’ | 肥 féi ~’ba’ + 肉 ròu ~ ‘rọi’ | barọi 肥肉 féiròu (bacon) |
| chả 炸 zhà (SV tạc), lụa 肉 ròu (SV nhục) ‘meat’ | chảlụa 炸肉 zhàròu | 炸 zhà (fried) ~ chả 紮 zhà, 肉 ròu ~ ‘lụa’ 綢 chóu | 炸 zhà ~ chả | 肉 ròu (meat) ~ ‘lụa’ | 炸 zhà (fried) ~ chả, 肉 ròu (meat) ~ ‘lụa’ | zh- ~ ch-, r- ~ l- | 肉 ròu ~ lụa’ | 炸 zhà ~’chả’ + 肉 ròu ~ ‘lụa” | chảlụa 炸肉 zhàròu (fried meat, steamed ham) |
| siêng ‘hard-‘ 勤 qín + ‘-working’ 勉 miăn ~ ‘năng’ | siêngnăng 勤勉 qínmiăn (SV cầnmiễn) ‘hard-working’ | 勤 qín ~ ‘siêng’ (hard-working, 勉 miăn ~ ‘năng’ 能 néng (ability) | @ 勤 qín + 能 néng | làm: 幹 gàn, 弄 nòng… | cf. ‘làmsiêng’ @# 勤勞 qínláo (SV ‘cầnlao’, hard-working), ‘làmlụng’ @ 勞動 láodòng (labor) | q- ~ s-, or m- ~ n-, | 勤力 qínlì (SV cầnlực) > ‘gắngsức’, ‘gắnglàm’ \ @ 力 lì ~ ‘làm’ | 勞 láo + 勤 qín ~ ‘làm + siêng’ | 勤勞 qínláo (SVcầnlao) ‘làmsiêng’ (hard-working) |
| 要 yào (SV yêu) ‘fat’, 飯 fàn (SV phạn) ‘rice’ | ănmày 要飯 yàofàn (beggar) | 要 yào ~ ‘ăn’ 唵 ān, 飯 fàn ~ ‘mày’ | 要 yào ~ ăn [ cf. 要錢 yàoqián (ăntiền) ‘taking bride’] | Hainanese 飯 /muj2/ | 要 yào ~ ‘ăn’, 飯 fàn ~ ‘mày’ | Ø- ~ ă, f- ~ m- | 飯 fàn ~ ‘mày’ | 要 yào ~ ‘ăn’ 唵 ān (association), 飯 fàn ~ ‘mày’ (phonetic) | ănmày 要飯 yàofàn (beggar) |
| mực 幅 fú (bức) ‘degree, amplitude’ | mứcđộ, mựcđộ 幅度 fúdù (bứcđộ) | mực 幅 fú ~ 率 lǜ (suất) (~> ‘mực’, mức’) | 幅 fú ~ bức ~ bực ~ mực ~ mức | 度 dù (degree) | ‘độbự’ ~> ‘bựcđộ’ ~> ‘mứcđộ’ ~> ‘mựcđộ’ | f- ~ m-, b- ~ m- | 幅 fú ~ ‘mức’ for 率 lǜ (suất) | 幅 fú ~ ‘mực’ + 度 dù ~ ‘độ’ | mứcđộ (mựcđộ) 幅度 fúdù (bứcđộ) |
| sòng 等 děng (đẳng) ‘class’ | sòngphẳng 平等 píngděng (bìnhđẳng) | 等 děng ~> ‘đẳng’ (~> ‘sẳng’ ) ~> ‘sòng’ | 平 píng ~ ‘bằng’ (equal) ~> ‘phẳng’ (level) | 等 děng ~ ‘hạng’ (class) | 平 píng ~ ‘bằng’ (equal) ~> ‘phẳng’ (level) | d-(t-) ~ s- | 等 děng ~> ‘sòng’ | 等 děng ~ ‘sòng’ + 平 píng ~ ‘phẳng’ | sòngphẳng 平等 píngděng ‘equal footing’ |
| bần 混 hún (hỗn) ‘mix’ | xàbần 雜混 záhún (tạphỗn) | 雜拌 zábàn (tạpbạn) | 拌 bàn (bạn) ‘bần’ | 混 hún (hỗn) ~ 拌 bàn (bạn) ~> ‘bần’ | ‘xàbần’ 雜混 záhún ~ 雜拌 zábàn | hw- ~ b- | 雜混 záhún (tạphỗn) ~> ‘tràtrộn’ ~> ‘xàbần’ | 雜 zá ~ ‘xà’ + 混 hún ‘bần’ | ‘xàbần’ 雜混 záhún ~ 雜拌 zábàn (‘mixed dried fruits or sweetmeats’, ‘hotchpotch.’ Also: ‘admixture’) |
| Mono- syllabic | Dis- syllabic | Asso- ciation | Assim- ilation | Cate-gorical | Coro- llary | Sound changes | Inno-vation | Word- character | Word |
| mùi 毛 máo (SV mao) ‘fiber’, tơi 棕 (椶) zōng (SV tông) ‘palm leaf’ | mùitơi 棕毛 zōngmáo (tôngmao) ‘palm fiber, coir’ | 棕 (椶) zōng ~ ‘tơi’, 毛 máo, mù ~ ‘mùi’ | 棕毛 zōngmáo ‘mùitơi’ ~> ‘mồngtơi’ | mùi 毛 máo, mù (mao) ~> ‘mùi’ ~> ‘mồng’ | mùitơi, mồngtơi 棕毛 zōngmáo | z- ~ t-, -ong ~ -oj, -aw ~ uj, -ong | 棕毛 zōngmáo ‘mùitơi’ ~> ‘mồngtơi’ | 毛 máo ‘mùi’ +棕 zōng ‘tơi’ | ex. 窮掉棕毛 qióngdiàozōngmáo ‘nghèorớtmùitơi’ (extremely impoverished) |
| sát 隔 gé (SV cách), vách 壁 bì (SV bích) | sátvách 隔壁 gébì (cáchbích) | Beijing: 隔 gé ~ /jié/ ~> ‘sát’ 切 qiè | 隔壁 gébì ~ 隔壁 (Beijing) jiébì | cách 隔 gé ~ ‘sát’ 切 qiè | cáchvách, sátvách 隔壁 gébì | g- ~ j-, s-, b- ~ v- | ‘jié’ is another sound pro-nounced by Beijingers | ‘sát’ 切 qiè (next to) + vách 壁 bì (wall) | sátvách 隔壁 gébì (SV cávhbích) ‘next door’ |
| mai 明 míng (SV minh) ‘tomorrow’ | ngàymai 明日 míngrì (minhnhật) | Beijing: 明ㄦ míngr (VS mai ~ mơi) | 明日 míngrì ~ 明天 míngtiān | ngày: 日 rì ~ 天 tiān | ngàymai, ngàymơi, mainầy 明天 míngtiān | r- ~ ng-, n-, t- ~ đ- | ‘mai’ contract- ion of míngr 明ㄦ (SV minhnhi), ‘nầy’ 日 rì ~ ‘đây’ 天 tiān | ngày 日 rì + mai 明 míng, nầy, đây 天 tian | ‘ngàymai’ 明天 míngtiān (tomorrow) ~> ‘mainầy’, ‘maiđây’ |
| sức 力 lì (SV lực) ‘strength’ | gắngsức 盡力 jìnlì (SV tậnlực) ‘try hard’ | cốsức 努力 nǔlì (SV nỗlực) ‘try hard’ | rasức 出力 chùlì ‘try one’s best’ | sứclực 力 lì (sức+lực) ‘strength’ | cốgắng (cốsức 努力 nǔlì+gắngsức 盡力 jìnlì) ‘work hard’ | j- ~ g-, l- ~ s-, n- ~ k- | ránsức 盡力 jìnlì | 僅 jǐn (SV cần) gắng ‘hard-working’ | gắngsức 盡力 jìnlì ‘try hard’ |
| trêu 逗 dòu ‘tease’ | đùagiỡn ‘play’ | chơigiỡn, giỡnchơi ‘play’ | dòu 逗 chọc ‘tease’ | dòuwán 逗玩 chọcghẹo | trêughẹo ‘tease’ | d- ~ tr-, ch-, d- ~ đ-, w- ~ b-, gi-, gh- | đùadai, đùabỡn (> bông\đùa) ‘play a trick on’ | 逗 dòu ~ ‘đùa’ | bôngđùa 逗玩 dòuwán ‘to joke’ |
| Mono- syllabic | Dis- syllabic | Asso- ciation | Assim-ilation | Cate- gorical | Corollary | Sound changes | Inno-vation | Word- character | Word |
| chợ 市 shì ‘market’ | chợbúa | phốchợ ‘market- place’ | 市 shì ~ 舖 pǔ ‘market and shop’ | 舖 pǔ ‘shop’ | phốchợ < chợphố | sh- ~ ch-, p- ~ ph-, b- | ‘chợbúa’, cf. 斧 fǔ ~ ‘búa’ (hammer), 婦 fù ~ ‘bụa’ (wife), 佛 fó ~ ‘bụt’ (Buddha) | 市 shì ~ ‘chợ’ | 市舖 shìpǔ ‘chợbúa’ (marketplace) |
| uống 飲 yǐn ‘drink’ (SV ẩm, Cant. /jəm3/ ) | ănuống | modern M 吃喝 chīhè ‘eating and drinking’ | 食 shí (xơi ‘eat’, /shjət/ Cant.) ~ 吃 chì (VS ăn 唵 ān ‘eat’, cf. SV ngật < 乙 ất) | 飲食 yǐnshí ‘food and drink’ ~ 吃喝 chīhè ‘to eat and todrink’) | 食 shí (xơi ‘eat’) ~ 吃 chī (xơi), 唵 ān (ăn) | Ø- ~ w-, ng- ~ a- | ẩmthực ~ ănuống | uống 飲 yǐn (/jəm/ Cant./) | 飲食 yǐnshí ‘ănuống’ (eating) ~ 吃喝 chīhè (eating) |
| chầu 朝 cháo (attend) | chầuchực (wait on) | 朝 cháo chầu (attend to the King) | 俟候 sìhòu ‘chờchực’ (attend) ~ 期待 qídài ‘chờđợi’ (wait) | 候 hòu ‘hầu’ (serve) | 候 hòu ‘hầu’ (serve) > ‘chầu’ (attend) | s- ~ ch-, h- ~ ch- | ‘chờ’ > ‘chực’, ‘hầu’ > ‘chầu’ => ‘chầuchực’ => ‘chờchực’ | 候 hòu ‘hầu’ (serve) | 俟候 sìhòu ‘chờchực’ (wait on, serve) |
| 順 shùn ‘luôn’ (conveniently) | luônthể 順手 shùnshǒu (conve-niently) | suônsẻ 順利 shùnlì | luôntiện 順便 shùnbiàn | nhântiện 順便 shùnbiàn ‘sẵntiện’ | sẵntay 順手 shùnshǒu ~ ‘luônthể’ > ‘nhânthể ‘ (conve-niently) | sh- ~ l-, l- ~ s-, s- ~ th- | suônsẻ, sẵnthể, luônthể, nhânthể | 順 shùn (SV thuận) ~ ‘xuôi’ (follow) | 順手 shùnshǒu (conveniently), ‘luônthể’ (> ‘chótlọt’ ~ ‘trótlọt’) |
| đái 尿 niào (urinate) | điđái 拉尿 làniào ~ 尿尿 niàoniào | 拉 là > đi | ỉa 屙 è (Mand.) SV ‘ố’ (to shit), 屙屎 /o5xi3/ (Cant.) ~> điỉa 拉屎 làshǐ (to shit) > tiểu, đái, điđái 拉尿 làniào (unrinate) | 尿道 niàodào (SV niệuđạo) > # đườngtiểu (urethra) | 尿 niào (SV niệu) > tiểu (urine) | l- ~ đ-, n- ~ t-, đ- | đitiểu > điđái | tiểu, đái 尿 niào (urinate) | đitiểu, điđái 拉尿 làniào |
| Mono- syllabic | Dis- syllabic | Asso- ciation | Assim- ilation | Cate-gorical | Coro- llary | Sound changes | Inno- vation | Word- character | Word |
| Suggested: try ‘baylượn’ 飛翔 fēixiáng (flying) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Suggested: try ‘búnthang’ 湯粉 tāngfěn (broth noodles) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Suggested: try ‘lạnhgiá’ 淒涼 qiēliáng (freezing) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Suggested: try ‘rétmướt’ 淒冽 qīliè (chilly) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Suggested: try ‘chếtyểu’ 夭折 yāozhé (die young) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Suggested: try ‘lắngnghe’ 聆聽 língtìng (listen carefully) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Suggested: try ‘thảthính’ 打聽 dătìng (inquire) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Suggested: try ‘sẵnsàng’ (làmsẵn) 現成 xiànchéng (ready, prepared) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Suggested: try ‘mẹvợ’ 岳母 yuèmǔ (mother-in-law) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Suggested: try ‘bốvợ’ 岳父 yuèfù (father-in-law) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Suggested: try ‘conrể’ 姑爺 gūyě (son-in-law) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Suggested: try ‘dâu’ 媳婦 xífù (bride) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Suggested: try ‘sắpsửa’ 行將 xíngjiāng (be about to) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Suggested: try ‘thờcúng’ 祀供 sìgòng ~ 上供 shànggòng (sacrificial worship) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
Alternatively, you can also tabulate your findings in a table like applying a function f(x,y,z), mathematically, as in arrays.
Using tabulation as a method
- Think of it like a function. You can organize your findings in a table, much as you would apply a mathematical function f(x, y, z) across an array. This helps you see patterns systematically rather than only intuitively.
- Recall the metaphor. In Section D we spoke of the monosyllabic tree and its dissyllabic leaves. A stem‑and‑leaf style plot is a useful way to visualize this relationship: the “stem” represents the etymological root, while the “leaves” represent the disyllabic forms that have grown from it.
- Group related words. Use the table to cluster disyllabic words that appear to share the same stem. This makes it easier to trace how a single root may have branched into multiple Vietnamese forms.
- Look for hidden elements. By tabulating in this way, you gain a concrete overview of how previously unrecognized elements can be derived from disyllabic words of possible Chinese origin. For example:
- bóhoa (‘a bunch of flowers’)
- hoatay (‘a dab hand’)
- Treat it as exploratory. Remember, this is not about rigid rules but about generating leads. The table is a tool for brainstorming, helping you see connections that might otherwise remain hidden.
Case Study Worksheet 2
| stem (etymology)* | leaves (variations)* |
| hoa (花 huā) | #đoá 朵duǒ, #bó 把 bă, #vòng 圈 quān, #xe 車 chē, tay 手 shǒu, #khéotay 巧手 qiáoshǒu (hoatay, ‘a dab hand’ \ 巧 = ‘hoa’), |
| chả (炸 zhà) | cá 魚 yú, lụa ~ giò 肉 ròu, ram 煎 jiān |
| mắm (鹹 xián) | ruốc ~ tôm (tép) 蝦 xiā, riêu 蟹 xié (~ghẹ), cá (~mặn) |
| dưa (瓜 guā) | #hấu 塊 kuài, #tây 西 xī, #dây 葛 |
| ban (白 bái) | ngày 日 rì, trưa 晝 zhòu, #ăn 吃 chī as in ‘ănbám‘ (白吃 báichī \ 白 = ‘bám’) |
| trăng (月 yuè) | khuyết 虧 kuī, rằm 盈 yíng, #vầng 暈 yùn, sáng 亮 liàng (~#blăng?) |
| tay (手 shǒu) | #bàn 板 băn, chân 腳 jiăo, #ra 出 chù, #sẵn 順 shùn, hoa 花 huā, khéo 巧 qiáo |
| nhỏ (小 xiăo) | bé 微 wēi, #cô 姑 gū, #cậu 舅 jìu |
| lòng (心 xīn) | nhọc 操 cāo, #đau 痛 tòng, #lót 點 diăn, #tấm 坎 kán, #buồn 悶 mèn, #cõi 境 jǐng |
| cả (大 dà) | gan 膽 dăn (~ @ 肝 gān), #anh 兄 xiōng, #bể 海 hăi, lũ 伙 huǒ, |
| thợ (匠 jiāng) | mộc 木 mù, nề ® 泥水 níshuǐ, sắt 鐵 tiě (~thiết), khoá 鎖 suǒ, ngói 瓦 wă |
| bể <~ biển (海 hăi ~> ‘khơi’) | #cả 大 dà, #sóng 浪 làng, cửa 口 kǒu, #cướp 窛 kòu (~賊 zéi), ra 出 chū, #ngoài 外 wài |
| — | — |
| — | — |
| — | — |
| — | — |
*For etymology of these words, refer back to previous sections
or search http://han-viet.com.
For this specific table, you are going to study and identify what language it is for each row of listed items (hint: the header abbreviation by a single alphabet).
Case Study Worksheet 3 – Basic words in Vietnamese and other regional Asian languages
| Lang-uage | Two | Three | Bird | Eye | Give | Blood | Water | Stone | Name | Snow | Who | Say |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| A | njidh | səm | ghjəm | mjəkʷ | kjəp | maŋ | tujʔ | khiagw | ɕiŋ⁵¹ | snhot | duj | ghwra:ts |
| B | nhait | sone | nghaat | myetlone | payy | shaayy | ray | kyaww kya | nar m tyaww ko | moe pw ng | a bhaalsuu sai | pwayar so |
| C | ˀɑɻ⁵¹ | san⁵⁵ | ʨin⁵ | mu⁵¹ | ʨj²¹⁴ | huaŋ⁵ | świ²¹⁴ | tan⁵¹ | seŋs | ɕɥ̯œ²¹⁴ | świ⁵ | xu̯a⁵¹ |
| D | du | se | sae | nun | jugi | pi | mul | dol | seong | nun | nugu | malhada |
| F | dalawang | tatlo | ibon | mata | magbigay ng | dugo | tubig | bato | pangalan | snow | sino | sinasabi |
| G | jiː²² | saːm⁵⁵ | kam⁴⁴ | mʊk̚² | kap⁴⁴ | fong¹¹ | sɵy³⁵ | taːm³³ | sɛːŋ³³ | syːt̚³ | sɵy²¹ | waː³⁵ |
| H | ob | peb | noog | qhov muag | muab | ntshav | dej | pob zeb | lub npe | daus | uas | hais |
| I | dua | tiga | burung | mata | memberikan | darah | air | batu | nama | salju | siapa | mengataka |
| J | ni | san | tori | me | ataeru | etsueki | mizu | ishi | furunēmu | yuki | dare | Iu |
| K | pir | bei | baksaei | phnek | phtal aoy | chheam | tuk | dom th | chhmoh | pril | del | niyeay |
| L | song | sam | nok sanid | ta | hai | leuod | noa | hin | su | hima | thi | vao |
| M | dua | tiga | burung | mata | memberi | darah | negara | batu | nama | salji | yang | berkata |
| S | Ssxng | s̄ām | nk | tā | H̄ı̂ | leụ̄xd | pratheṣ̄ | f̄in | chụ̄̀x | f̄ima | khır | phūd |
| T | ñii | sum | bya | mig | sbyin | ƫhaa | ćhū | to | miŋ | qhań | sū | smra |
| V | haːj˧ | ɓaː˧ | ʨim˧ | mat˥ | ʨɔ˧ | maw˥ | nɨək˥ | ɗaː˥ | ten˧ | twiət˥ | aːj˧ | nɔj˥ |
| X | jī | saⁿ | ba̍k | chuí | sèⁿ | seh | chuí | hoā |
Worksheet 4
List of the 23 identified fundamental basic words for which we could plug in all Vietnamese and Chinese cognates into place without much difficulty. Let’s work on this for worksheet, and try if you will to see what the AA MK camp will come up with.
23 basic words in Vietnamese and other regional Asian languages
| Basic words | A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | V |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ye | |||||||||||||
| worm | |||||||||||||
| who | |||||||||||||
| what | |||||||||||||
| we | |||||||||||||
| thou | |||||||||||||
| this | |||||||||||||
| that | |||||||||||||
| spit | |||||||||||||
| pull | |||||||||||||
| old | |||||||||||||
| not | |||||||||||||
| mother | |||||||||||||
| man/male | |||||||||||||
| hear | |||||||||||||
| give | |||||||||||||
| flow | |||||||||||||
| fire | |||||||||||||
| bark | |||||||||||||
| ashes | |||||||||||||
| I |
Source: “Ancient Languages Have Words in Common”by Zachary Stieber, Epoch Times (May 6, 2013)
Case Study Worksheet 5 – Fill in the missing Chinese etyma
| Interchanges | Chinese (?) |
|---|---|
| trời ~ giời | |
| trầu ~ giầu | |
| trăng ~ giăng | |
| trùn ~ giun | |
| trôn ~ lồn | |
| trũng ~ lũng | |
| dăn ~ nhăn | |
| dơ ~ nhơ | |
| dồi ~ nhồi | |
| dức ~ nhức | |
| cha ~ già | |
| chi ~ gì | |
| chói ~ giọi | |
| chuỳ ~ giùi | |
| chừ ~ giờ | |
| chủng ~ giống | |
| chẻ ~ xẻ, xé | |
| chiên ~ xiên | |
| chòm ~ xóm | |
| chen ~ xen | |
| chếch ~ xếch | |
| chao ~ xào | |
| đã(cơn) ~ dã(cơn) | |
| đứt ~ dứt | |
| đao ~ dao | |
| đập ~ dập | |
| đình ~ dừng | |
| đướn ~ dưới | |
| đạy(học) ~ dạy(học) | |
| đun(đẩy) ~ dun(dẩy) | |
| (chỉnh)đốn ~ dọn(dẹp) | |
| (cây)đa ~ (cây)da |
In addition to the 5 worksheets above, you can query corresponding words with the dictionary of Vietnamese etymology and fill in the blank in the last column of vocabulary table prepared by Mark Alves at http://world.livingsources.org/vocabulary/24.
By the way, never mind about those redundant Sino-Vietnamese lists, e.g., ‘thếgiới’ 世界 shìjiè, ‘lụcđịa’ 陆地 lùdì, etc., which should not be included in the table because there are thousands more of similar words like those in the Vietnamese language and they are affirmatively Sino-Vietnamese words of Middle Chinese origin.
What we are trying to do here is to identify “Vietnamized” words of Chinese origin to put them into that Sinitic-Vietnamese category. That said, the purpose of this worksheet is to point out a due process that fill deficiency of Western scholars who have still had misconception about what is Sino-Vietnamese.
Case Study Worksheet 6 Samples of Vietnamese vocabulary list worksheet compiled by Prof. Mark Alves
Vietnamese vocabulary
by Mark Alves
The vocabulary dataset contains 1,534 meaning-word pairs from Vietnamese, of which only a small, randomly selected portion is quoted here. Your task is to complete the blank “Source word” columns by identifying possible Chinese cognates, making use of the author’s http://han-viet.com as needed.
This material corresponds to the Vietnamese chapter in Loanwords in the World’s Languages,* where the Vietnamese section lists all recorded loanwords organized by donor language.
Each entry is presented in its standard orthography or transcription, using the conventional citation form. By clicking on a word, you can access additional details beyond what is displayed in the table.
| Word | LWT Code | Meaning | Borrowed Status | Source Words |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| anh | 2.444 | the older brother | 5. no evidence for borrowing | Sample from Sinitic-Vietnamese Dictionary: “兄 xiōng < MC hwiajŋ < OC *hmraŋ “ |
| anh chị | 2.4561 | the older sibling | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| anh chị em | 2.456 | the sibling | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| anh chị em họ | 2.55 | the cousin | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| anh em | 2.44 | the brother | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| biển | 1.32 | the sea | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| bà (1) | 2.47 | the grandmother | 1. clearly borrowed | 婆, pó (Chinese ) |
| bà (2) | 2.471 | the old woman | 1. clearly borrowed | 婆, pó (Chinese ) |
| bà con | 2.81 | the relatives | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| bà goá chồng | 2.76 | the widow | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| bác | 2.51 | the uncle | 2. probably borrowed | 伯, bó (Chinese ) |
| bác | 2.512 | the father’s brother | 2. probably borrowed | 伯, bó (Chinese ) |
| bão | 1.58 | the storm | 2. probably borrowed | bào (暴) (Chinese ) |
| bóng (1) | 1.63 | the shade or shadow | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| bóng tối | 1.62 | the darkness | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| bùn | 1.214 | the mud | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| bọt | 1.324 | the foam | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| bố | 2.35 | the father | 3. perhaps borrowed | 父, fǔ (Chinese ) |
| bố chồng | 2.611 | the father-in-law (of a woman) | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| bố dượng | 2.71 | the stepfather | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| bố mẹ | 2.37 | the parents | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| bố mẹ vợ chồng | 2.622 | the parents-in-law | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| bố vợ | 2.61 | the father-in-law (of a man) | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| bờ | 1.27 | the shore | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| bụi | 1.213 | the dust | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| cháu | 2.5 | the grandchild | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| cháu | 2.541 | the sibling’s child | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| cháu gái | 2.49 | the granddaughter | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| cháu gái | 2.54 | the niece | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| cháu trai | 2.48 | the grandson | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| cháu trai | 2.53 | the nephew | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| cháy | 1.852 | to burn(2) | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| chú | 2.51 | the uncle | 2. probably borrowed | (EH) *ćǝuk (叔, shū) (Old Chinese ) |
| chị | 2.454 | the older sister | 2. probably borrowed | (EH) *cjǝ́j (姐, jiě) (Old Chinese ) |
| chị dâu | 2.6412 | the sibling-in-law | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| chị em gái | 2.45 | the sister | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| chồng | 2.31 | the husband | 2. probably borrowed | (EH) *ḍáŋ (丈 , zhàng) (Old Chinese ) |
| chớp | 1.55 | the lightning | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| chớp | 1.57 | the bolt of lightning | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| con (1) | 2.27 | the child(1) | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| con (2) | 2.43 | the child(2) | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| con bé | 2.28 | the baby | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| con dâu | 2.64 | the daughter-in-law (of a man) | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| con dâu | 2.6411 | the child-in-law | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| con dấu | 2.641 | the daughter-in-law (of a woman) | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| con dấu | 2.6411 | the child-in-law | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| con gái (1) | 2.26 | the girl | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| con gái (2) | 2.42 | the daughter | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| con gái riêng | 2.74 | the stepdaughter | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| con rể | 2.63 | the son-in-law (of a man) | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| con rể | 2.631 | the son-in-law (of a woman) | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| con rể | 2.6411 | the child-in-law | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| con trai (1) | 2.25 | the boy | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| con trai (2) | 2.41 | the son | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| con trai riêng | 2.73 | the stepson | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| cát | 1.215 | the sand | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| cô | 2.52 | the aunt | 1. clearly borrowed | 姑, gū (Chinese ) |
| cô | 2.522 | the father’s sister | 1. clearly borrowed | 姑, gū (Chinese ) |
| cô ta | 2.932 | she | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| cù lao | 1.25 | the island | 2. probably borrowed | pulau (Cham ) |
| cưới | 2.33 | to marry | 3. perhaps borrowed | *NONE (娶, qǔ) (Old Chinese ) |
| cầu vồng | 1.59 | the rainbow | 3. perhaps borrowed | 虹, hóng (Chinese ) |
| cậu | 2.511 | the mother’s brother | 1. clearly borrowed | 舅, jiù (Chinese ) |
| củi | 1.88 | the firewood | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| cực quang | 1.771 | the arctic lights | 1. clearly borrowed | 極光, jí guāng (Chinese ) |
| diêm | 1.87 | the match | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| dì | 2.52 | the aunt | 2. probably borrowed | 姨, yí (Chinese ) |
| dòng nước xoáy | 1.362 | the whirlpool | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| em | 2.4562 | the younger sibling | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| em gái | 2.455 | the younger sister | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| em trai | 2.44 | the brother | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| em trai | 2.445 | the younger brother | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| gia đình | 2.82 | the family | 1. clearly borrowed | 家庭, jiā tíng (Chinese ) |
| giếng | 1.37 | the spring or well | 2. probably borrowed | (EH) *cjéŋ (井, jǐng) (Old Chinese ) |
| gái | 2.24 | female(1) | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| gío | 1.72 | the wind | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| gả | 2.33 | to marry | 2. probably borrowed | *kra:_h (嫁, jià) (Old Chinese ) |
| gỗ | 1.43 | the wood | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| hang | 1.28 | the cave | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| hơi | 1.71 | the air | 3. perhaps borrowed | (EH) *khǝś (氣, qì) (Old Chinese ) |
| hơi nước | 1.831 | the steam | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| hậu duệ | 2.57 | the descendants | 1. clearly borrowed | 後裔, hòuyì (Chinese ) |
| hắn | 2.931 | he | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| hồ | 1.33 | the lake | 1. clearly borrowed | 湖，hú (Chinese ) |
| khói | 1.83 | the smoke | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| không khí | 1.71 | the air | 1. clearly borrowed | 空气, kōng qì (Chinese ) |
| không nổi sóng | 1.322 | calm | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| ly dị | 2.341 | the divorce | 2. probably borrowed | 离异, lí yì (Chinese ) |
| lưu vực | 1.24 | the valley | 1. clearly borrowed | líu yù (流域) (Chinese ) |
| lấy (1) | 2.33 | to marry | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| lửa | 1.81 | the fire | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| m | 2.521 | the mother’s sister | 2. probably borrowed | 母, mǔ (Chinese ) |
| mày (1) | 2.92 | you (singular) | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| mây | 1.73 | the cloud | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| mũi đất | 1.343 | the cape | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| mưa | 1.75 | the rain | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| mặt trăng | 1.53 | the moon | 3. perhaps borrowed | bulang (Chamic ) |
| mặt trời | 1.52 | the sun | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| mẹ | 2.36 | the mother | 3. perhaps borrowed | *mɛ (Proto-Tai ) |
| mẹ chồng | 2.621 | the mother-in-law (of a woman) | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| mẹ ghẻ | 2.72 | the stepmother | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| mẹ vợ | 2.62 | the mother-in-law (of a man) | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| mồ côi | 2.75 | the orphan | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| người | 2.1 | the person | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| người bạn trai | 2.251 | the young man | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| ngọn lửa | 1.82 | the flame | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| nó | 2.93 | he/she/it | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| núi | 1.22 | the mountain or hill | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| nước | 1.31 | the water | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| phá | 1.341 | the lagoon | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| quả phụ | 2.76 | the widow | 1. clearly borrowed | 寡妇, guǎ fù (Chinese) |
| rừng | 1.41 | the woods or forest | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| sao (1) | 1.54 | the star | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| sinh đôi | 2.458 | the twins | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| sóng | 1.35 | the wave | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| sông | 1.36 | the river or stream | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| sương | 1.64 | the dew | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| sương mù | 1.74 | the fog | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| sấm | 1.56 | the thunder | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| tao | 2.91 | I | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| than | 1.89 | the charcoal | 2. probably borrowed | 碳, tàn (Chinese ) |
| than hồng | 1.841 | the embers | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| thiếu nữ | 2.261 | the young woman | 1. clearly borrowed | 少女, shàonǚ (Chinese ) |
| thung lũng | 1.24 | the valley | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| thác nước | 1.39 | the waterfall | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| thím | 2.522 | the father’s sister | 1. clearly borrowed | 婶, shěn (Chinese ) |
| thảo nguyên | 1.411 | the savanna | 1. clearly borrowed | 草原 , cǎo yuán (Chinese ) |
| thế giới | 1.1 | the world | 1. clearly borrowed | shì jiè (世界) (Chinese ) |
| thời tiết | 1.78 | the weather | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| trai | 2.23 | male(1) | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| triều | 1.352 | the tide | 1. clearly borrowed | 潮， cháo (Chinese ) |
| triều cao | 1.354 | the high tide | 2. probably borrowed | 高潮， gāo cháo (Chinese ) |
| triều thấp | 1.353 | the low tide | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| tro | 1.84 | the ash | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| trời | 1.51 | the sky | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| tuyết | 1.76 | the snow | 1. clearly borrowed | xuě (雪) (Chinese ) |
| tôi | 2.91 | I | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| tắt | 1.861 | to extinguish | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| tổ tiên | 2.56 | the ancestors | 1. clearly borrowed | 祖先, zǔ xiān (Chinese ) |
| vách đá | 1.222 | the cliff or precipice | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| vịnh | 1.34 | the bay | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| vợ | 2.32 | the wife | 2. probably borrowed | (EH) *bwǝ́ (妇, fù) (Old Chinese ) |
| ánh sáng | 1.61 | the light | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| ông (1) | 2.46 | the grandfather | 1. clearly borrowed | 翁, wēng (Chinese ) |
| ông (2) | 2.461 | the old man | 1. clearly borrowed | 翁, wēng (Chinese ) |
| ông bà | 2.4711 | the grandparents | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| ông goá vợ | 2.77 | the widower | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| đàn bà | 2.22 | the woman | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| đàn bà có chồng | 2.39 | the married woman | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| đàn ông | 2.21 | the man | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| đàn ông có vợ | 2.38 | the married man | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| đá (1) | 1.44 | the stone or rock | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| đá (2) | 1.77 | the ice | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| đá ngầm | 1.342 | the reef | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| đám cưới | 2.34 | the wedding | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| đông lại | 1.775 | to freeze | 2. probably borrowed | dōng (冬) (Chinese ) |
| đại dương | 1.329 | the ocean | 1. clearly borrowed | 大洋, dà yáng (Chinese ) |
| đại lục | 1.26 | the mainland | 1. clearly borrowed | dà lù (大陆) (Chinese ) |
| đảo | 1.25 | the island | 1. clearly borrowed | dǎo (岛) (Chinese ) |
| đất (1) | 1.21 | the land | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| đất (2) | 1.212 | the soil | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| đầm lầy | 1.38 | the swamp | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| địa động | 1.45 | the earthquake | 1. clearly borrowed | 地动, dì dòng (Chinese ) |
| đốt | 1.86 | to light | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| đốt cháy | 1.851 | to burn(1) | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| đồi | 1.22 | the mountain or hill | 4. very little evidence for borrowing | *?dl/rOOi (Proto-Tai ) |
| đồng bằng | 1.23 | the plain | 5. no evidence for borrowing | |
| động | 1.323 | rough(2) | 2. probably borrowed | 动, dòng (Chinese ) |
*This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Germany License
II) Conclusion
The central findings of this research can be summarized in five points:
- Yue substratum: Evidence of Yue elements predating the emergence of Chinese.
- Critique of bias: Recognition of how nationalist and political agendas have distorted Vietnamese historical linguistics.
- Reclassification of cognates: Demonstration that many Vietnamese cognates align more closely with Sino‑Tibetan and Chinese than with Mon‑Khmer.
- Disyllabicity: Assertion that both Vietnamese and Chinese are fundamentally disyllabic, not monosyllabic.
- Analogical method: Introduction of an approach based on recurrent syllabic pairings to identify additional Sinitic‑Vietnamese words.
Although Sinitic‑Vietnamese issues have been intermittently addressed under various guises since the last century, most specialists of Vietnamese etymology have continued to separate the Sinitic layer from the aboriginal Yue substratum. Instead, they have subsumed Vietnamese under Austroasiatic Mon‑Khmer, Austro‑Thai, Daic‑Kaida, Vietic, or Viet‑Muong groupings, all postulated as branches of a common Taic ancestry (De Lacouperie [1887] 1963). In doing so, they have downplayed the existence of a proto‑Yue stage, from which Sinitic elements later emerged across the territory that became the Middle Kingdom. The lexical evidence preserved in sources such as the Erya and Kangxi dictionaries – where doublets and root variants are commonplace – attests to this deeper Yue foundation.
At the same time, Vietnamese may also be regarded as a living descendant of the Yue language. Throughout this study, the author has emphasized that during the millennium of Chinese rule beginning in 111 B.C., the Annamese language, an ancient linguistic medium, gradually absorbed successive layers of late Sinitic elements that overlaid its Yue foundation. Together, these strata evolved into what we now recognize as modern Vietnamese. In fact, there is clear continuity of lineage, with affiliated variants developing from antiquity to the present.
When mapped geographically, the distribution of subdialects reveals a steady gradient of articulation, ranging from tense and heavy in the north to increasingly lax and softened in the south. This linguistic pattern mirrors the region’s history of ethnic admixture: northerners appear more Sinicized, central populations show stronger Chamic influence, and southerners reflect a blend of migrants from the north and center with local Khmer communities. The southern dialect, in particular, seems to have been shaped by early Teochew settlers whose speech intermingled with Khmer, producing the versatile Vietnamese spoken there today.
The study of Sinitic‑Vietnamese words of Chinese origin remains underexplored. Specialists have often limited their analyses to a narrow set of monosyllabic items, comparing them one‑to‑one with individual Chinese characters. This approach typically confines Sinitic‑Vietnamese vocabulary to the phonological framework of Sino‑Vietnamese as aligned with Middle Chinese, and occasionally with Archaic or pre‑Sino‑Vietnamese (Tiền‑Hán‑Việt) strata. With the exception of some progress in Old Chinese reconstruction by leading Sinologists, Vietnamese linguistics has largely neglected broader comparative work, particularly with Sino‑Tibetan etymologies and with modern Chinese dialects and sub‑dialects that share basic vocabulary with Vietnamese. The evidence presented in the chapter on Sino‑Tibetan etymologies strongly supports this wider perspective, showing that these comparative sources have been crucial reservoirs for many active words in Vietnamese.
In the field of Sinitic‑Vietnamese etymology, progress has long been hindered by a deeply rooted misconception: the assumption that both Chinese and Vietnamese are inherently monosyllabic. In reality, meaningful work on polysyllabicity has been scarce. The Vietnamese concept of tiếng – a “complete sound” that can function as morpheme, syllable, or word – has often been misunderstood. Because modern Vietnamese orthography writes each syllable separately, many continue to mistake every syllable for a self‑contained word. This view, inherited from the historical reliance on Chinese character scripts until the early 20th century, has perpetuated the illusion of monosyllabism. As a result, research has disproportionately focused on monosyllabic Sino‑Vietnamese items, treating each syllable as an independent lexical unit, while overlooking the countless disyllabic compounds that more accurately reflect the structure of the language.
It is clear that this faulty approach has not only obstructed genuine breakthroughs in Vietnamese etymological studies but has also hindered broader cognitive development by ignoring the role of polysyllabicity. As seen in languages such as German, polysyllabic structures facilitate faster and more efficient processing of generalized information. This is why the present study has emphasized the principle of dissyllabicity in both Vietnamese and Chinese, proposing it as the foundation for a new etymological methodology. Such a framework enables the identification of a far greater number of Vietnamese words of Chinese origin within a coherent dissyllabic system.
The persistent misconception of Vietnamese as a “monosyllabic” language has severely limited progress in the field. Since Haudricourt’s theory of tonogenesis more than seven decades ago, there has been little fresh exposition of Vietnamese etyma of Chinese origin. Much scholarly focus has instead been diverted to Austroasiatic cognates, often unevenly distributed, many of which in fact align more closely with Sino‑Tibetan etymologies. This survey therefore suggests reconsidering the classification of Vietnamese within a broader Sino‑Tibetan framework.
Whether or not Vietnamese is ultimately placed within the Sino‑Tibetan family, the analogical approach advanced here, drawing on Chinese forms both literary and vernacular, ancient and modern, offers a productive path forward. By applying this method, the study seeks to renew momentum in Sinitic‑Vietnamese research and to open new avenues within the Sino‑Tibetan domain. The comparative cases cited, including those from Shafer’s lists, demonstrate the plausibility of this direction. While only plausible Sinitic‑Vietnamese etyma have been examined here, the clarification of irregularities already marks progress toward a more coherent understanding of the basic word stratum.
Ultimately, this research aims to equip both novices and specialists with new insights and practical tools for investigating Sinitic‑Vietnamese vocabulary, with particular attention to dissyllabicity and Sino‑Tibetan cognateness. In time, such work will enable lexicologists to compile, for the first time in Vietnamese linguistic history, a comprehensive modern dictionary that systematically incorporates Chinese etymologies alongside other roots, including Mon‑Khmer.
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